water supply

LECTURE NOTES

For Environmental Health Science Students

Water Supply I

Zeyede Kebede

Tesfaye Gobena

Alemaya University

In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center,

the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education

2004

Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00.

Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter

Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.

Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this

publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or

faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the

original document. Under no circumstances is it permissible to sell or distribute on a

commercial basis, or to claim authorship of, copies of material reproduced from this

publication.

be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,

including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,

without written permission of the author or authors.

This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or

students and faculty in a health care field.

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Preface

There is scarcity of teaching materials on water supply

specifically prepared for medium level environmental health

and other related health professionals. This holds true for all

of the teaching institutions of health sciences in Ethiopia.

Because of this, teachers prepare lecture notes using

available references in their respective institutions. This

contributes to differences in course outlines and contents.

Hence, the development of this lecture note will help to

maintain the standard of course contents among different

institutions of health sciences. It also plays a significant role to

solve the shortage of different books and texts on the subject.

This lecture note on Water Supply I contains five chapters.

Special emphasis is given to water-associated health

problems prevailing in Ethiopia and also on the water source

developments. Each chapter is presented in simple language.

At the beginning of each chapter the learning objectives are

stated.

Books, journals and existing lecture manuscripts were mainly

used to develop this lecture note. In addition useful ideas from

different instructors were also included.

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It is hoped that this material will be of particular use not only to

teach medium level environmental health and other related

professionals in colleges and universities but also serve as a

reference tool for those graduates working in health care

service institutions.

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iii

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our deep gratitude to The Carter

Center for the financial support to the workshops conducted to

develop the lecture notes. We would also like to thank

Alemaya University Health Science Faculty academic staff

members for reviewing the manuscripts in the intrainstitutional

workshop. Our warm appreciation also goes to

Ato Kebede Faris, Ato Nega Baraki and Ato Asamenew

Abayneh who gave valuable comments during the interinstitutional

workshop. Finally, we would like to extend our

sincere thanks to W/t Bruktayet Alemayehu who patiently

typed the first draft.

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Table of Contents

Preface i

Acknowledgement iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction to the Course 1

1.2 Historical Background of Water and Human

Progress

1.3 Terms Commonly Used in Water Supply 5

1.4 Public Health Importance of Water 6

1.5 Importance of Water 7

1.6 Global Occurrence of Water 9

Review Questions 10

CHAPTER TWO: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF WATER AND GEOLOGY

2.1 Some Important Properties of Water 11

2.2 Hydrologic Cycle 13

2.3 Impurities of Water 15

2.4 Introduction to the Physical Geology 18

Review Questions 23

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CHAPTER THREE: WATER SUPPLY AND

HUMAN HEALTH

3.1 Water, Health and Disease 24

3.2 Water-associated Disease 28

Review Questions 36

CHAPTER FOUR: SOURCES OF WATER 37

4.1 Groundwater 37

4.2 Surface Water 43

4.3 Rainwater 44

4.4 Ocean Water 45

Review Questions 46

CHAPTER FIVE: WATER SOURCE

DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Water Requirements 47

5.2 Methods of Construction and Protection of

Sources of Water From Contamination

5.3 Water Supply and Community Involvement 86

Review Questions 87

Glossary 88

References 91

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Porosity of common soils and rocks 20

Table 3.1 Waterborne diseases with their etiologies 29

Table 3.2 The four mechanisms of water-associated

diseases and preventive strategies

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vii

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 The hydrologic cycle 14

Fig .2.2 The rock cycle 19

Fig 2.3 Water table in bedrock 22

Fig 3.1 Agent – environment - host triangle 28

Fig 3.2 The classical waterborne disease infection

cycle

Fig.3.3 The cycle of transmission of

schistosomiasis

Fig. 4.1 Shallow well, deep well, shallow spring,

deep spring in relation to water bearing

strata

Fig 4.2 a&b. How artesian wells are formed 41

Fig 5.1 A typical protected sanitary dug well with

out pump

Fig 5.2 A driven well 57

Fig 5.3 A protected bored well 59

Fig 5.4 An infiltration gallery 61

Fig 5.5 A jetted well 62

Fig 5.6 Proper location of a well 66

Fig 5.7 A sanitary rope-and-bucket well 68

Fig 5.8 A protected spring with a collection box 70

Fig 5.9 River intake structure 73

Fig 5.10 A simple sanitary installation for collecting

rainwater

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viii

Abbreviations

cm Centimeter

hect Hectare

Kg Kilogram

L/d/c Liter per day per capita

MOH Ministry of Health

PHC Primary Health Care

sq.m. Square meter

WC Water closet

WHO World Health Organization

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Learning Objectives

After the completion of this chapter the student will be able to:

􀂃 Describe the historical background of water supply

􀂃 Describe the public health importance of water

􀂃 Identify the global occurrence of water

􀂃 List the importance of water

1.1 Introduction to the Course

According to WHO survey 80% of all illnesses in developing

countries are water-associated. The use of unsafe water

causes high prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases among

children resulting in high infant and child mortality rates. Water

and sanitation have emerged as a primary health care

component so that it will be able to alleviate the associated

morbidity and mortality. Despite international and local efforts

towards improving these conditions, changes are not

satisfactory in many African countries. This is because water

supply is generally linked with or affected by factors such as:

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economy, population growth, educational status, customs,

traditions, governmental concern, etc. Hence, the provision of

safe and adequate water supply programs requires integrated

efforts of different concerned sectors including the community

to be benefited for its effective achievements.

In Ethiopia the problems related to water supply are attributed

mainly to lack of maintenance of the previously constructed

systems, lack of community involvement when the earlier

water systems were built, lack of spare parts and local

maintenance capabilities, etc. These problems are magnified

particularly in the rural parts of the country and greatly hamper

the operation even of the minimal water supply systems

available in these areas. Because of these facts, the problem

still persists and has contributed a lot to the low safe water

coverage in the country. For instance, According to the health

indicators of MOH, the safe water coverage in 1992 E.C. for

urban areas was 83.5%, and 24.7% in the rural parts of the

country where the majority of the population is living.

Even though it is the desire of every family and every

individual to have adequate and safe water supply, the

majority of the population in rural Ethiopia does not have

access to this basic requirement.

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This course is therefore intended to equip environmental

health and other related professionals with basic knowledge,

attitude and skills that will enable them to identify waterassociated

health problems of the community and plan water

source development programs. The learner will also be able

to work independently in the design, construction, and

operation of water supply at small-scale level, thereby solving

the health problems associated with unsafe and inadequate

water supply in Ethiopia.

1.2 Historical Background of Water and

Human Progress

Human search for pure water began in prehistoric times.

Water was the root of human civilization, which sprang up

only where abundant water supply was available. These areas

of civilization were those which flourished on the banks of the

Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates and in other countries like India

and China. Throughout the centuries, the search for safe

water kept pace with civilization. Some examples follow:

• India-2000 B.C

The Indians boiled and exposed the water to sunlight. They

also dipped a piece of hot copper into the water seven times.

In addition, they filtered and cooled it in an air vessel.

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• Egypt-1450 B.C

In ancient Egypt siphons were used to clear water from jars

after the Nile water was stored and the impurities settled to

the bottom of the jar.

• Greece-400 B.C

Hippocrates, the father of medicine, asserted that rainwater

should be boiled and strained, otherwise it would smell bad

and cause hoarseness.

• Ancient Rome

The ancient Romans built notable water systems, part of

which are still in use. Water was brought by gravity from

mountain springs through great aqueducts to the cities

crossing valleys.

• Europe 1800 A.D.

As cities and industries grew, the importance of safe water

supply became increasingly apparent. The occurrence of

epidemics in different parts of Europe also increased the

demand of water purification.

For example, in 1852, the city of London was requested by

Parliament to filter its water through sand filters and in 1892,

the value of filtration was witnessed, when an epidemic of

cholera struck the citizens of Hamburg, Germany. They drank

unfiltered water from the Elbe River. Just beyond the Elbe

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River, where the water supply was filtered, the residents of

Altona remained healthy. In 1912 liquid chlorine was first

applied to destroy disease-producing bacteria. Today every

large city chlorinates its water.

1.3 Terms commonly used in water supply

Aquifer: an underground zone or layer, which is a relatively

good source of water. It is a rock formation that bears and

yields water when penetrated by wells.

Confined water: groundwater held between two layers of

impermeable rock.

Eye of the spring: opening where the water comes out of the

earth.

Free water; groundwater which can move without hindrance

in response to the force of gravity.

Impermeable: not allowing passage of, for example, a liquid.

Infiltrate: to pass through a permeable substance, usually

slowly, as if through a filter.

Palatable water: water that is pleasant to drink because its

taste is good but it may not be safe to drink.

Per capita: literally “by needs” by unit of population by

person.

Permeable: able to be passed through or penetrated by a

fluid.

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Pollution: the presence of matter whose nature, location, or

quantity produces undefined environmental effects.

Porosity: the quality of being full of pores and therefore

absorbent and permeable.

Potable: safe for drinking, free from pathogens which are

introduced to the water through feces, dirty containers, etc.

Raw water: water that has not been purified.

Sedimentation: the action of settling down or depositing

matter in a liquid.

Turbidity: disturbed, muddy appearance of water.

1.4 Public Health Importance of Water

Water is a basic necessity for life. Unfortunately, not all water

helps human to survive. Water from contaminated sources

causes numerous diseases and untimely deaths. The fact that

a human needs water and cannot live without it forces him to

use it even for drinking purposes, from any source, whether

pure or contaminated, As a result, many people suffer or die

from waterborne diseases. Hence, every country has to take

preventive measures to avoid pollution and contamination of

the available water resources. Therefore, public water supply

must be potable, palatable and wholesome. Water must not

have disagreeable physical change and must be hygienically

safe.

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1.5 Importance of Water

The following points elaborate the importance of water:

1. It is impossible to have a clean and sanitary environment

without water. Water is necessary in promoting personal

hygiene and in cleaning the environment. Without an

adequate and wholesome water supply, health cannot be

maintained.

2. Water is essential for life. Man can live nearly two months

without food, but can live only three or four days without

water. In general 70% of human body weight is water and

a human being needs two liters of water per day as

minimum.

3. Most of the foods that man eats contain water.

For example:

- Milk contains about 88% water.

- Egg contains about 66% water.

- Fish are 80% water.

- Potatoes are 75% water.

- Beef is 77% water

4. It is essential to run industries. Nearly all modern

industries are thirsty; they need water.

For example:

- It takes about 10 liters of water to produce one litter of

petrol.

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- It takes about 600 liters of water to produce 1kg of woolen

cloth.

- It takes about 3500 liters of water to produce 1kg of dry

cement.

5. It’s important for the balance in ecology (i.e. the balance

in relationship between living things and the environment

in which they live). All animal life depends directly or

indirectly upon vegetation for food, and vegetation will not

grow without water. Vegetable matter, such as leaves and

steams, can be converted to soil by bacterial action.

Bacteria need water in order to thrive. New plants growing

in this soil take up nutrients through their roots in the form

of a solution in water. Any break in this ecological chain

can mean failure of the whole ecological system.

6. Water is important for agriculture, animal breeding and

fishing.

7. Water is a valuable source of energy. It is capable of

generating hydroelectric power.

8. Water facilitates transportation and navigation. For

example, the Baro River is one of the rivers used for boat

transportation in Ethiopia.

9. Water plays an important role in recreation activities. Lake

Langano is an attractive lake for recreation.

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1.6 Global Occurrence of Water

Water is located in all regions of the earth. The problem is that

the distribution, quality, quantity and mode of occurrence are

highly variable from one locality to another.

Water is the most widely occurring substance in the world.

Over 72% of the earth's surface is covered by water. This

means that if the body of water were evenly distributed, it

would cover the globe to an average depth of over 4

kilometers. Out of the 72% of the earth’s surface water, 97.2%

is in the ocean, which is unfit for human consumption, as it is

too salty to be used for drinking and irrigation without

desalination. Desalination is too expensive to consider as a

water purification method. Another 2% of the remaining water

lies frozen in glaciers and in icecaps, and is mostly

unreachable. The tiny usable portion is about 0.8% of the

total, which is neither evenly distributed nor properly used.

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Review Questions

1. Write the public health importance of water.

2. What is the reason that the largest portion of the water is

unfit for domestic and agricultural purposes?

3. Explain the global occurrence of water in terms of

percentages.

4. Write at least five important reasons for water.

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CHAPTER TWO

GENERAL CHARACTERSTICS OF

WATER AND GEOLOGY

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:

􀂃 List the important properties of water.

􀂃 Describe the hydrologic cycle.

􀂃 Identify impurities of water.

􀂃 Describe the geology of the earth.

2.1 Some Important Properties of Water

Pure water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom

of oxygen chemically combined. The chemical symbol is H2O

and the chemical name is hydrogen monoxide.

Water exists in three states: as a liquid, as a solid (ice and

snow), and as a gas (water vapor). It is a very stable chemical

substance. Water has a maximum density of one at a

temperature of 4OC. It boils at 100OC and freezes at 00C at a

barometric pressure of 760 millimeters of mercury. Pure water

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is practically colorless, odorless and tasteless. Any deviation

from these physical characteristics should be considered as

an indication of impurity.

Water has the ability to dissolve solids and to absorb gases

and other liquids. Hence, it is often referred to as the

“universal solvent”. Because of this solvent power, all natural

water contains minerals and other substances in solution,

which have been picked up from the air, the soil, and rocks

through and over which it passes.

Water has very high molecular attraction both for its own

molecules (cohesion) and for molecules of other substance

(adhesion). Because of this particular characteristic, a large

quantity of water is held in rock particles and by plant roots in

the soil. The PH of pure water is 7 (neutral).

Upon freezing to ice, water expands in volume by about one

tenth and exerts a pressure of 33,000 pounds (15,000 kg) per

square inch (6.45 sq. cm). It is this pressure that bursts water

pipes in freezing water.

Water in liquid form weighs approximately 62.5 pounds (28.41

kg) per cubic foot. This is 830 times heavier than air.

However, in the form of vapor, water is 133 times lighter than

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air, (volume for volume), which partly explains why water

vapor rises in the atmosphere to form clouds.

2.2 Hydrologic Cycle

The water on earth, whether as water vapor in the

atmosphere as surface water in rivers, streams, lakes seas

and oceans or as groundwater in the subsurface ground

strata, is for the most part not at rest but in a state of

continuous recycling movement. This is called the hydrologic

cycle or water cycle. (Fig. 2.1)

This water circulation depends on the temperature and

humidity of the environment or atmosphere. The sun’s heat

acts upon the surface of the earth and bodies of water and as

a result, water evaporation takes place from oceans, seas,

etc., and water transpiration takes place from leaves of trees

and plants.

The process acts continuously to form dense rain clouds in

the lower atmosphere. After condensation, the rain clouds

precipitate and release water to the surface of earth in the

form of rain, snow, dew, etc.

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As the rain reaches the ground surface a portion of it

evaporates back immediately. Some percolates into the soil to

become groundwater.

The remaining portion of the rain flows over the earth’s

surface as run-off, streams, and rivers and finally joins the

oceans, lakes, seas, etc. This cycle repeats again and again.

The amount of water involved in water cycle varies from place

to place. But the total amount of water in the world is constant.

Some raw water called juvenile water is added to the system

when water in rocks is released as volcanoes spew out

molten rock. Water molecules are dissociated in the upper

atmosphere, allowing some hydrogen ions to escape to outer

space. Nevertheless, the total amount of water on earth

remains the same.

Transpiration

Evaporation from

land and water

Sea

Cloud

Precipitation

Surface runoff

Subsoil

Infiltration

Water

table

Lake Swamp River

Spring

Aquifer Absorption Aquifer

Impervious rock

Fig.2.1. The hydrologic cycle

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water supply in Ethiopia, 1973

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2.3 Impurities of Water

Water is not absolutely pure in nature. Impurities vary from

dissolved gases, chemicals, minerals, to suspended matter

and disease-causing micro-organisms. Some can be seen

with the naked eye, while others that cannot be seen are

detected by taste or smell or other laboratory methods.

Sources of Impurities: Water gathers impurities as it goes

through its natural cycle. First it may pick up micro-organisms,

dust, smoke, and gases from the atmosphere as it comes

down as rain, hail, etc. As rain touches the earth’s surface, it

becomes surface water. As it flows over the earth’s surface, it

may pick up dirt, micro-organisms, chemicals and anything

else in its path which can be moved or dissolved.

Water which percolates into the ground loses many of its

suspended impurities as it filters through the earth.

Impurities of water may be divided into two classes:

1. Suspended Impurities

a. Micro-organisms: they may get into water from the air

with dust, etc., as rain falls, or commonly when soil

polluted with human and animal wastes is washed into the

water source. The latter type of impurity in water is the

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most dangerous one because a good number of microorganisms

are pathogenic and cause disease.

b. Suspended solids: Minute particles of soil, clay, silt, soot

particles, dead leaves and other insoluble material get

into water because of erosion from higher ground,

drainage from swamps, ponds, top soil, etc. Toxic

chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides are also

included in this category.

They are introduced to streams either as industrial wastes

or drained in after rain from land treated with these

chemicals. Generally, suspended solids cause taste, color

or turbidity.

c. Algae: Algae are minute plants that grow in still or

stagnant water. Some algae are green, brown or red, and

their presence in water causes taste, color and turbidity.

Some species of algae could be poisonous both for

aquatic animals and humans.

There are different types of algae found in water:

i. Asterionell – Gives water an unpleasant odor.

ii. Spirogyra – Is a green scum found in small ponds and

polluted water. It grows in thread like groups. It is

slippery and non-toxic.

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iii. Anabaena – Is blue- green and occurs in fishponds,

pools, reservoir, and clogs filters.

2. Dissolved Impurities

a. Gases: Oxygen (02), carbon dioxide (C02), hydrogen

sulphide (H2S), etc, find their way into water as it falls as

rain or, in the case of the latter two, from the soil as water

percolates through the ground. All natural water contains

dissolved oxygen, and in certain circumstances carbon

dioxide. The presence of C02 and H2S (but not 02) causes

acidity in water. In addition, H2S imparts a bad odor to the

water.

b. Minerals: minerals get into water as it percolates

downward though the earth layers. The type of minerals

dissolved will depend on the nature of the specific rock

formation of an area.

Most common dissolved minerals in water are salts of

calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc. Salts of the

first two elements cause hardness in water, while salts of

the latter two elements cause alkalinity. Salts of toxic

elements, such as lead, arsenic, chromium, etc, get into

water mainly as industrial wastes dumped into streams.

c. Plant dyes: These originate from plants, which grow in or

around water and cause acidity and color.

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2.4 Introduction to the Physical Geology

The earth is one of the planets, and has nearly spherical

shape slightly flattened at the poles and at the equator. The

three zones of earth corresponding to the three states of

matter (solid, liquid and gas) are:

1. Lithosphere- solid central zone

2. Hydrosphere- The zone of water – cradled in the ocean

basins and distributed across the surface of the land.

3. Atmosphere – gaseous envelope surrounding them.

The earth was originally a molten mass. Through the ages its

upper portions have cooled and solidified gradually to form an

earth crust. The interior of the earth is variable, consisting of

concentric shells which differ in composition, density and

elasticity.

Classification and characteristics of formations: Rocks

are divided into three major classes.

1. Igneous rocks: are those formed by the cooling and

hardening of molten rock masses. The rocks are

crystalline and contain quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende,

pyroxene, and olivine. Igneous rocks are not usually good

sources of water, although basalts are exceptions. Small

quantities of water are available in cracks and fissures.

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2. Sedimentary rocks: are those resulting from the

deposition and accumulation of materials. Weathered and

eroded remains of plants, animals, or material precipitated

limestone, fossils, gypsum, peat, shale, loess, and

sandstone are examples of sedimentary formations.

Deposits of sand and gravel generally yield large

quantities of water. Sandstones, shale, and certain

limestone may yield abundant groundwater, although

results may be erratic.

3. Metamorphic rocks: are produced by the alterations of

other rocks, generally by means of heat and pressure.

Gneisses and schist, quartzite, slates, marble,

serpentines, and soapstones are metamorphic rocks. A

small quantity of water is available in joints, crevices, and

cleavage planes.

The rock cycle: This shows how the three major classes of

rocks are formed (Fig 2.2).

Ingenious rock weathering Magma

Erosion transporting Melting metamorphic

Sediment rock Metamorphism

Lithofication (solidification) Sedimentary

Fig. 2.2 The rock cycle

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Porosity and texture of rocks

Porosity: Openings in rocks may contain water between

individual mineral or sediment grains called pores. The

porosity of rocks or soils is the ratio of volume of the pore

space to the total volume of the material including its pores.

Porosity varies with type of rock that makes up the waterbearing

stratum. Porosity varies from 1% in unfractured

granite to more than 40% in a poorly cemented sand stone.

Examples of porosity percentages of common rocks are

depicted in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Porosity of common soils and rocks

Type of rocks Porosity (%) Grading pore space

in rock

1 Top soil 37-65 Very high

2 Clay 44-47 Very high

3 Sand and gravel

compacted

35-40 Very high

4 Chalk 14-45 High

5 Sand stone 4-30 High

6 Lime stone 0.5-17 Fairly high

7 Granites Schist (Igneous

and metamorphic)

0.02-2 Very low

The size and addition of the openings exerts a strong

influence upon rate of flow. The course sands and gravel

permit rapid flow of water and these are referred to as highly

permeable materials. But the clay form will obstruct the flow of

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water because of their microscopic openings, thus their

formation is impermeable.

• Specific yield: is the quantity of water that a formation

will yield in proportion to the total volume it holds. If a

sandstone has a porosity of 20% but will yield only half of

this water, then the rock is said to have a specific yield of

10%. A specific yield of 10%, however, represents a

great volume of available water in storage. Topsoil with

50% porosity will have yield of 25%.

Movement of water within the soil

In the process of water movement underground or in the soil,

two forces are involved: capillary and gravity.

Capillary: is the tendency of a liquid to cling to the surface of

a solid material and draw the liquid up against the pull of

gravity.

Gravity: is the movement of water towards the pull of gravity.

• Water table: is the top (upper) limit of the zone of

saturation in the groundwater formation (See Fig.2.3).

Rain and run-off water filters into the soil, passes through

the margin of water table and reaches the lower zone

called the zone of saturation.

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Fig. 2.3 water table in bedrock

Source: Wright F.B, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, 1977

If the rock is faulted as shown in Fig 2.3 the water may collect

in the faults and flow in quantity for long distances. Wells

drilled between faults, as at “A”, may have a very weak flow

because the water moves slowly through the rock. A shallow

well, as at “B”, may go dry in dry weather. A well which strikes

faults with flowing water, as at “C”, may have a very strong

flow, but is more likely to be contaminated than water which

filters through soil or rock.

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Review Questions

1. Write about the important physical and chemical

properties of water.

2. Draw the hydrologic cycle and show the important

phenomenon that is taking place.

3. What are the differences between suspended impurities

and dissolved impurities?

4. Identify the forces which are involved in the process of

water movement underground or in the soil.

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CHAPTER THREE

WATER SUPPLY AND HUMAN

HEALTH

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:

􀂃 Describe the relation between water and diseases.

􀂃 Identify waterborne, water-washed, water-based and

water-related diseases.

􀂃 Describe the prevention and control of waterborne, waterwashed,

water-based and water-related diseases.

3.1 Water, Health and Disease

The saying “water is life” is found in many cultures around the

world. It underscores the fact that clean water is an absolute

prerequisite for healthy living. The importance of water in

human welfare cannot be over-emphasized. The normal

functioning of the human body depends entirely upon an

adequate quantity and quality of water. But if the water is from

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contaminated sources, it causes numerous water-associated

diseases.

In the developed world, water-associated disease are rare,

due essentially to the presence of efficient water supply and

waste water disposal systems. However, in the developing

world, the majority of people are without a safe water supply

and adequate sanitation.

A WHO survey has highlighted the following facts:

- Each day, 30,000 people die from water-associated

diseases.

- In developing countries, 80% of all illnesses are waterassociated.

Safe, adequate and accessible supplies of water, combined

with proper sanitation, are basic needs. Therefore, water

supply is taken as an essential component of primary health

care (PHC). Safe, adequate and accessible water supply can

help to reduce many of the disease affecting under-privileged

populations especially those who live in rural and urban fringe

areas.

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A wide range of natural and human influences affects water

quality. The most important of the natural influence are

geological, hydrological and climatic conditions, since these

affect the quantity and the quality of water available.

The effect of human activities on water quality are both

widespread and varied in the degree to which they disrupt the

ecosystem and/or restrict water use.

There are two main types of water pollution:

1. Chemical pollution of water and diseases

Almost every known element existing normally in the

environment can become poisonous when introduced into the

human system in larger than normal quantities. One major

way of introducing these elements into the environment and

later into the human system is through the discharge of

industrial effluents into water sources such as rivers.

These pollutants include detergents, solvents, nitrogenous

substances, dyes, ammonia, etc. This can affect human

health directly or indirectly by accumulating in aquatic life.

Some elements or chemicals maybe found in water in

excessive or inadequate amounts. For instance, excess

fluorine in water causes dental flourosis or mottled enamels

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while lack of fluorine in water causes dental cavities

(decay).Therefore, maintaining the optimal level (1mg/l) is

essential.

It has been observed that surface water is often low in fluoride

content but the concentration is high in underground water

sources.

A concentration of 10 PPM of nitrate nitrogen is thought to be

harmful. It causes infant methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby

syndrome).

2. Biological pollution of water and diseases

Water may contain numerous pathogenic organisms and

thereby become a means of transmission for many diseases.

All water-associated disease require an infectious agent, a

transmission route and the exposure of a susceptible living

organisms for their spread. The relationship can be illustrated

in the form of a triangle as shown in Fig. 3.1.

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Agent

Environment Host

Fig.3.1. Agent-environment-host triangle

(The vicious circle which has remained hard to break).

3.2. Water-associated Disease

Water-associated disease can be defined as a disease in

relation to water supply and sanitation. There are four

categories:

1. Waterborne disease

2. Water-washed disease

3. Water-based disease

4. Water-related disease

1. Waterborne diseases

Several infections enteric or intestinal diseases of man are

transmitted through water contamination by fecal matter.

Pathogens excreted in water by an infected person include all

major categories such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and

parasitic warms. Water acts only as a passive vehicle for the

infectious agent. Table 3.1 shows examples of waterborne

diseases.

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Table 3.1 Waterborne diseases with their etiologies

Types of

organism

Disease Types

Bacteria 􀂃 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever

􀂃 Cholera

􀂃 Diarrheas (caused by salmonella, yersinia

entrocolitica, E.coli)

􀂃 Campylobacter dysentery

􀂃 Bacillary dysentery (caused by shigella)

Virus 􀂃 Hepatitis A

􀂃 Poliomyelitis

􀂃 Viral gastroenteritis

Protozoa 􀂃 Amoebic dysentery

􀂃 Giardia (lambliasis)

􀂃 Balantidiasis

Helminthes Helminthiasis caused by Ascaris and

Trichinas

To prevent the occurrence of waterborne diseases, water

treatment is very essential. The cycle of infection due to

waterborne diseases is explained in Fig. 3.2.

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Fig.3.2. The classic waterborne disease infection cycle

N.B. It should be noted that waterborne diseases form part of

the group of water-washed diseases as well. They may also

be transmitted by any of the faeco-oral routes: dirty hands,

dirty food, dirty water, etc.

2. Water-washed diseases

These comprise diseases linked to a lack of water for

personal hygiene. Examples of water -washed diseases are:

􀂃 Dermatological disease such as scabies

􀂃 Ophthalmic disease such as trachoma and conjunctivitis

Infected

person

Susceptible

person

Pathogens in

excreta

Consumption of

untreated water

Contaminated

water sources

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􀂃 Louse-borne diseases such as louse borne typhus and

relapsing fever. Lack of good personal hygiene and

unability to wash clothes encourages the proliferation of

lice and the problems associated with their presence

(itching, scratching, skin sores).

To prevent this type of disease, provision of an ample amount

of water and personal hygiene are very essential.

3. Water-based diseases

These are diseases caused by infectious agents that are

spread by contact with water. The essential part of the life

cycle of the infecting agent takes place from an aquatic

animal.

A number of diseases depend upon the pathogenic

organisms spending part of their life cycle in water or in an

intermediate host which lives in water. Thus, infection of

humans cannot occur by immediate ingestion of, or contact

with, the organism excreted by sufferers.

Many of the diseases in this class are caused by worms,

which infest the sufferer and produce eggs, which are then

discharged in feces or urine. Typical examples are

schistosomiasis and dracunculiasis (guinea worm). See Fig.

3.3 for the cycle of transmission of schistosomiasis.

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Fig. 3.3. The cycle of transmission of schistosomiasis

Source: Public Health Technician, 1994

To prevent this group of diseases, the following methods may

be implemented:

- Avoidance of contact with and ingestion of contaminated

water.

- Reduction of intermediate hosts (snail) by using “endod”

or Lemma toxin.

- Storage of water from 24 to 72 hours to kill the cercaria.

4. Water-related diseases

These are diseases transmitted by insects that live close to

water. Infections are spread by mosquitoes, flies and other

insects that breed in water or near it.

Larvae develop into adult

Parasitic worms

Infected human passes

eggs out in urine or faeces

Eggs hatch into

larvae

Snail becomes infected; larvae multiply in snail

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There are a number of diseases which are spread by insects

that breed or feed near water so that their incidence can be

related to the proximity of suitable water sources. Infection

with these diseases is in no way connected with human

consumption or contact with the water.

Example: Malaria, sleeping sickness, yellow fever,

onchocerciasis, etc.

To prevent this type of disease, making the water unsuitable

for breeding of insects is essential.

Summary

All the waterborne and many of the water-based diseases

depend for their dispersion on infecting agents from human

feces getting into drinking water or into food. The chain of

disease transmission may be broken effectively by sanitary

disposal of feces and the provision of safe and adequate

water supplies.

Improvement in the reality of community water supplies will

basically only affect the waterborne disease such as bacillary

dysentery, cholera and typhoid. Many of the diarrheal

diseases probably are due more to a lack of safe and

adequate quantities of water. Skin and eye infections are in

this group of water-associated diseases.

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When water supplies are developed without complementary

improvements in personal hygiene, food handling and

preparation, and in general health care, they are unlikely to

produce the expected health benefits. Table 3.2. discusses,

in comparative form, the four categories of water-associated

diseases, and gives examples of typical diseases in each

category, the causative agents and the preventive strategies.

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Table 3.2. The four mechanisms of water-associated diseases and preventive strategies

Water-associated

diseases

Example Agent Preventive strategies

1. Waterborne (faecal –oral)

a) Low infectious dose

b) High infectious dose

Typhoid, cholera

Bacillary desentry

-Improve water quality

-Prevent usual use of other

contaminated source

- Health education

2. Water-washed

a) Skin and eye

b) Other.

Scabies, trachoma

Louse-borne fever

-Improve water quantity

-Improve water access.

- Health education

3. Water-based

a) Penetrating skin

b) Ingested

Schistosomiasis

Guinea worms

-Decrease need for untreated water

contact

-Control snail population

-Improve quality of water

-Filter out Cyclops.

- Health education

4. Water-related

a) Biting near water

b) Breeding in water

Sleeping sickness,

Malaria

-Proper site selection of house

-Using personal protection materials

-Destroy breeding sites of insects

-Decrease need to visit breeding

site

- Health education

Key: A - Bacteria B - Virus C. Protozoa

D. - Helminthes E. - Spirochetes F. Other agents

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Review Questions

1. Why are water-associated diseases more common in

developing countries than developed countries?

2. Write the two main types of water pollution.

3. How are waterborne diseases transmitted? Give some

examples.

4. Write the differences between water-washed and waterbased

diseases.

5. Write the prevention methods of water-related diseases.

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CHAPTER FOUR

SOURCES OF WATER

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:

1. Identify the different water sources

2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of

groundwater

3. Identify surface water sources

4. Describe the importance of rainwater

5. Describe the disadvantage of ocean water

4.1 Groundwater

Definition

Groundwater may be defined as that portion of the total

precipitation which has percolated downward into the porous

space in the soil and rock where it remains, or from which it

finds its way out to the surface.

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Groundwater is by far the most practical and safe in nature. It

is the most important source of supply for most rural

communities of the world. Examples of groundwater are wells

and springs.

Advantages of groundwater:

A. It is comparatively likely to be free from disease causing

micro-organism

B. it can be used without further treatment if properly

protected and treated immediately after the completion of

construction work on the well or other source where

groundwater is available.

C. It is not exposed for evaporation and is used as natural

storage in underground.

D. It is most practical and economical to obtain and

distribute.

E. Groundwater can be found near a family or a community.

Disadvantages of groundwater

A. It needs pumping unless it comes from a spring

B. It may contain excess amounts of dissolved minerals.

C. It is poor in oxygen content.

Occurrence of groundwater

􀂃 Groundwater may be found in the form of perched water,

free water or confined water.

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a. Free water: Is groundwater occurring where there is

no interruption or confining formation in the water –

bearing stratum. It is free movement of water under

the water table, in the impervious stratum of the soil

formation.

b. Confined water: Is groundwater located between the

overlying (upper) confined stratum and underlying

(lower) confined stratum.

c. Perched water: may occur where the water-bearing

stratum is blocked by an impervious barrier or bed,

which may itself overlie on another aquifer or stratum.

􀂃 In terms of depths of occurrence of the water –bearing

stratum, groundwater may be tapped by the following

means.

a. Shallow wells: Are wells that have been dug into the

uppermost permeable stratum. They have a depth of

less than 30 meters. In shallow wells, the water level

always stands with in “sucking” distance of a pump

located at the top of the well.( See Fig 4.1)

b. Deep wells: Are wells that have been sunk through

an impermeable formation until they tap water from a

permeable stratum below it. It is sunk with drilling

machines designed and produced for water. They tap

water from a minimum depth of around 60 meters.

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Deep wells frequently penetrate more than one waterbearing

stratum; therefore they may provide a

stronger flow. Also, deep sources are less affected by

drought as the water bearing formations are more

likely to be extensive in area.

In some areas deposits of salt, sulphur or other

objectionable minerals make it unfit to drill deep for water.

Such conditions can usually be determined by a survey of

existing wells in the area. Deep wells are constructed for

water supply in large communities. The water table in

deep wells does not rapidly fluctuate, and therefore

provides a large and uniform yield. (Fig. 4.1)

Fig.4.1. Shallow well, deep well, shallow spring, deep spring in relation to

water bearing strata.

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

1st permeable stratum

2nd permeable stratum

Impermeable

Stratum

Impermeable Stratum

Ground

level

Percolation

Shallow

well

Percolation

Deep

Well

Intermittent

(temporary)

spring

Shallow

spring

(main)

Deep

spring

(main)

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c. Artesian wells: are wells in which groundwater

gushes out of its own accord above ground level. In

other words, an artesian well can flow naturally,

without any artificial efforts. An artesian well is formed

whenever there is a favorable hydraulic gradient for

groundwater to be at sufficient hydrostatic pressure to

rise above the zone of saturation (Fig 4.2. a and b). In

general these wells are not common.

Fig. 4.2. a and b, How artesian well are formed

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia,1973.

d. Springs: Are occurrences of groundwater naturally

issuing at points where the water table reaches the

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surface, or where the top confining layer over the water –

bearing strata is broken. Springs are normally found at the

foot of mountains and hills, in lower slopes of valleys, and

near the banks of major rivers. The yield (flow rate) of a

spring varies with the position of the water table, which in

turn varies with the rainfall amount at that locality and

season.

Springs may be classified as:

1. Surface, intermittent or seasonal spring: These are

springs which outcrop at a point higher in the groundwater

body than the impermeable stratum in the ground

formation. These are in fact seepages from the subsoil or

through cracks or faults in the rock formation. These

springs are usually not reliable, drying up during drier

seasons and appearing again during or after the rainy

seasons. They should not be developed as water supply

sources unless observed throughout the year for their

reliability.

2. Mainsprings: These flow out of the ground after the

infiltration water has reached an impermeable stratum in

the rock layers. Such springs are sometimes known as

gravity springs because the force of gravity makes them

flows in the direction of the hydraulic gradient.

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3. Thermal or hot springs: Are springs of water which have

been heated before they reach the surface of the ground.

There are at least two explanations for the occurrence of

thermal springs:

a) Heat escaping from hot lower levels of the earth’s

crust towards ground level may heat groundwater.

b) The strata of certain regions contain radioactive

elements, and heat emitted by this process may heat

groundwater and produce hot springs.

Thermal springs are quite common in various parts of the

world. Examples of well-known thermal springs in Ethiopia

are. “Filowha” of Addis Ababa; Wondogenet in the Southern

Region; and Soderie in East Showa Zone.

In many parts of the world spring waters are believed to cure

certain diseases. In Ethiopia, spring waters are believed to

have a super-natural power to cure all sorts of ailments, and

are known as “Tebel” (holy water).

4.2 Surface Water

Surface water is found non-uniformly distributed over the

earth’s surface. As the rain reaches the surface of the earth, it

becomes surface water or runoff. Surface water includes

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rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, etc. The quantity and quality of

surface water depend upon the conditions of the surface or

catchment area over which it flows.

4.3 Rainwater

In regions where rainfall is abundant and frequent, rainwater

can be a good source of water supply for individual families

and for small communities. The storage of rainwater is

particularly important in areas with a long dry season. It can

be stored in cisterns or ponds. In some rural sections of

Ethiopia, cistern water is used for all domestic and farm

purpose, including drinking.

This is particularly true where groundwater is difficult to obtain

or, if obtainable, it is for any reason unsatisfactory.

Advantages of Rainwater:

1. It is a reliable source even if it rains once or twice a year

only.

2. It is cheap and a safe means of water supply that may not

need pipes or pumps and is available at the doorstep. Its

storage needs no fuel, no spare parts, but only very little

skill to construct and maintain.

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3. Women and children, who are normally water carriers in

Ethiopia and other African countries, will be relieved of the

burden of walking long distances to fetch inadequate

supply.

4. Since the cistern will be in a closed container, it will not

permit spreading of diseases which are often found in an

unprotected source such as rivers or ponds.

5. It is a system that can be used even in arid and semi-arid

areas.

6. Since rainwater is soft, little soap is needed for laundry

purposes.

4.4 Ocean Water

Ocean water is unfit for human consumption even though it

comprises the largest portion of water on the earth's surface.

It is also too salty for irrigation and for domestic purposes. To

make the ocean water fit for these purposes; it must pass

through a process known as desalination (a process of

removal of salt from water). However, it is too expensive to

consider.

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Review Questions

1. List the types of ground and surface water sources.

2. What is the advantage and disadvantage of groundwater?

3. List the types of springs.

4. What is the significance of rainwater?

5. What is the disadvantage of ocean water?

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CHAPTER FIVE

WATER SOURCES DEVELOPMENT

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:

􀂃 Describe water requirements.

􀂃 Identify the methods of construction of the different

sources of water.

􀂃 List protection methods of the different water sources

from contamination.

5.1 Water Requirements

The availability of an adequate and safe supply of water is

one of the major requirements for the control of a large

number of diseases, and to advance the standard of good

general health within a community. One of the main duties of

a health worker, indeed of any community development

worker, should therefore be to see that a safe and plentiful

water supply is available to all segments of the community at

a reasonable cost.

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Quantity of water

It is now an established fact that water is used for domestic,

industrial, agricultural, public use and firefighting. Therefore,

the requirement of water is of prime consideration for design

of all water supply units including the intakes, pumps,

treatment plants, and pipelines of the distribution system.

The total consumption largely depends on:

􀂃 The climatic condition

􀂃 Cost of water

􀂃 Hygienic practice standards

􀂃 Type of supply (continuous or intermittent)

􀂃 Custom and habits of inhabitants

􀂃 Pressure in pipe lines

􀂃 Accessibility of water source

􀂃 Population

􀂃 Amount of water available

􀂃 Percentage of area of garden and lawns

􀂃 Financial position of population

􀂃 Efficiency of management system

􀂃 Type of industrial activities

􀂃 Fire extinguishing service, etc.

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Estimation of demand of water

The probable demand of water by a community is important

because it fixes the size and capacity of water supply units.

The total quantity of water can be estimated by ascertaining

different purposes for which the supply is necessary and the

quantity likely to be used under each item of supply.

Requirement is generally expressed in terms of average

number of liters of water per capita per day throughout the

year.

1. Water consumption at home:

Purpose Consumption l/d/c

Drinking 2.3

Cooking 4.5

Ablution 18.2

Washing of utensils and houses 13.6

Flushing of w.c 13.6

Bathing 27.3

Total 106.8

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2. Use of water by different establishments:

Type of building consumption l/d/c

- Factories with bathroom 45

- Factories with no bathroom 30

- Hospitals with laundry/bed 340

- Nursing room 135

- Hostels 135

- Hotels/bed 130

- Offices 45

- Restaurant 70

- Day school 45

- Boarding school 18.5

3. Consumption by livestock:

Type of livestock consumption l/d/c

- Horse 45.5

- Cow 68.5

- Hog 6.02

- Sheep 13.6

- Goat 13.6

4. Municipal purpose:

Purpose consumption rate

- Public park 1.4 l/m2 /day

- Road watering 1-1.5 l/m2/day

- Sewer cleaning 4.5 l/head/day.

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5. Industries

The presence of industries in towns has a great effect upon

total consumption. There is no direct relation of this

consumption with the population and hence the actual

requirement for all industries should be estimated.

6. Irrigation purpose

Purpose Consumption rate

- Road side trees 28150 l/km / day

- Public parks 16850 l/ hect / day

- Private garden 16850 l/hect/ day

7. Fire demand

The water requirement for extinguishing fire depends on bulk,

congestion and fire resistance of buildings. It mainly depends

on population. The minimum demand is the amount and rate

of supply that is required to extinguish the longest probable

fire.

8. Loss and wastage

Leakage from water sources as a result of careless and lazy

habits of consumers and inefficient management may create a

loss of about 20% of a well-maintained system.

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Variation in demand from average

Water consumption varies throughout the year. In certain

hours, days and months, the demand is maximum. There are

peak hours and days. Thus, the total water supply should be

adequate for this peak demand.

The average daily consumption of a particular city can be

found by dividing the total amount of consumption by 365

days.

The maximum daily consumption is about 180% of daily

consumption.

The maximum hourly demand may be 150% of average

hourly demand.

Here are a few examples:

If the daily consumption of a city is 100 million liters, the

maximum daily consumption may be expected to be

100X1.8= 180X 106 liters

The variations are very important to consider for the design of

various units.

The main pipelines conveying the water for distribution should

be capable of meeting the maximum demand.

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In general, the world's water requirement for all purposes is

increasing at an alarming rate in both developed and

developing countries. The main reasons are:

a) The rise in population growth in practically all countries of

the world.

b) Industrial growth and expansion (adequate water is an

essential raw material for an industrial enterprise).

c) Increase in overall per capita consumption of water. The

higher the living standard, the more water is required.

5.2. Method of Construction and Protection of

Sources of Water from Contamination

5.2.1. Groundwater

I. Methods of constructing wells

There are six different methods of constructing wells in waterbearing

strata:

A. Hand-dug wells: these are the oldest and most widely

used wells through out the world. They are excavated by

hand or by a variety of unspecialized excavation

equipment. Digging is carried out until water comes out.

Such wells are usually cylindrical with varying diameters,

one to three meters being usual. The depth to which a

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well should be dug largely depends on the type of

groundwater table. Private wells generally are less than

10 meters deep. Wells for communal use are frequently

much deeper, 20-30 meters. The depth below the water

table is normally up to 3 meters, due to the extreme

difficulty of digging below the water table.

The ideal time for digging a well is the driest season (in

Ethiopia April-May). This will help to get the maximum and the

real depth of the water table.

Most hand-dug wells need an inner lining. For this, materials

such as stone, masonry, concrete cast in shuttering inside the

hole, or pre cast concrete rings are used. The lining serves

several purposes. During construction, it provides protection

against caving and collapse.

In consolidated ground (rock), the well may stand unlined but

a lining of the upper part is always to be recommended. In

unconsolidated ground, the well should be lined over its entire

depth. Figure 5.1.depicts the features of a hand dug well

without a pump.

Advantages of a hand dug well:

􀂃 Relatively unskilled and inexperienced persons can

usually construct it.

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􀂃 No special tools or equipments are required, except in

difficult localities.

􀂃 The well provides a reservoir for storage in addition to the

water source.

Disadvantages of a hand-dug well:

􀂃 The possibility of a hand-dug well caving, where casing is

not adequate, is very high. Another possible hazard is

asphyxiation, a very real danger for the people who dig

the well.

􀂃 Such a well cannot be dug in a rocky locality without the

use of special equipment or explosives.

Fig.5.1. A typical protected sanitary dug well without pump

Source: Salvato, Environmental Sanitation, 1958.

Diversion

60 cm ditch

Wood cover

handle

Reinforced

Concrete concrete slab

slab

Diversion

ditch

3m water

tight

casing

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B. Driven well: This is constructed by driving a pipe into the

water table with driving tools. A specially perforated or

slotted tube with a well point is driven into the ground.

During driving, casing is used to safeguard the screen

from damage and clogging. (their diameter ranges from

25-75mm).

Driving can be done either mechanically or by hammering on

the upper end of the drive pipe. When the water table is

reached, the pipe is left in the water bearing formation as the

source, and the intake pipe and a hand pump are installed (fig

5.2). The diameter ranges from 3-10 cm (5-8 cm being the

most common).

The location must be near a riverbed where formation is very

soft, with the water table comparatively high and not

fluctuating during the year. They can be installed within a

matter of an hour.

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Fig.5.2. A driven well

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

C. Bored well: This is a well constructed with special boring

equipment operated by hand. For a reliable yield, the

Space to indicate

depth of well Water-bearing

stratum

Water table

Screen

Well-point

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minimum depth of a bored well should be around 6

meters but this depends very much on the level of the

water table of an area. The most common boring

equipment is the auger or earth-auger. Augers are made

with varying diameters, the so-called small-diameter

auger being usually 8-10 cm in diameter.

Bored wells vary in diameter from a few inches to 36

inches. The boring technique is used in soft ground such

as sand and soft limestone. Thus, boring is particularly

used in areas where these types of ground are most

common. A casing of concrete pipe, verified clay pipe or

metal pipe is usually necessary to prevent the relatively

soft formation penetrated from caving into the well. During

excavation, the soil-filled auger will be drawn until it is

filled by the soil again. By this process the excavation will

continue upto the desired depth. The main advantage of

this method is that the construction can be completed in a

very short time and in geologically favorable areas. It is

suited for rapid mass construction (see fig 5.3 for a

protected bored well).

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Fig. 5.3. A protected bored well

Source: Salvato, Environmental Sanitation, 1958.

D. An Infiltration Gallery: This can be described as a

horizontal well (fig 5.4), usually constructed near a river

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bank and then connected to a large diameter vertical well

in order to obtain an adequate quantity of water. To

connect the river bank with the vertical well, a trench is

dug. When the excavation is completed, a perforated pipe

is laid in the bottom of the trench.

Layers of stone gravel and coarse sand are placed on top

of the pipe, and finally the trench is filled again. The yield

of the infiltration gallery may be increased by constructing

two or more trenches as desired.

Another common method of constructing an infiltration

gallery is by building a series of tunnels through a waterbearing

stratum and connecting these tunnels at a

suitable location where an adequate amount of water is

collected. It is not advisable to construct an infiltration

gallery unless the water table is relatively stable and the

water intercepted is free of pollution. Water derived from

infiltration galleries should be given a minimum of

chlorination treatment.

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Fig. 5.4. An infiltration gallery

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

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E. Jetted well: This is a well constructed by means of boring

equipment using water jetted under high pressure to facilitate

rapid boring as in fig 5.5. It doesn’t differ much from driven

wells but the point at the lower end of the screen is hollow

instead of solid and the well is bored through the erosive

action of a stream of water jetting from the point. Compared

with driven wells, jetted well construction is much faster.

Jetted wells can only be sunk in unconsolidated formations.

Fig.5.5. A jetted well

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

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F. Deep wells: Deep wells can be constructed by different

techniques:

1. The standard (cable tool) method. It is the first and

oldest method, which is used in both hard and soft soil

ground.

2. Rotary drilling: This involves rotation of pipes string,

which has a hardened cutting tool at the lower end. Water

with a mixture of additives (called drilling mud) is pumped

down the well either through the pipe or between the pipe

and the side of the well. The return flow carries the

cuttings to the top of the well where they are separated

from the flow to prevent the side of the well from

collapsing.

3. Jetting: It is a useful technique for small wells in soft

ground. A relatively high velocity steam of water is

directed down through a nozzle at the bottom of a pipe

string. As the string is raised, turned and lowered, the

high velocity flow washes out the materials. The casing is

dropped by its weight or driven as the hole advances.

4. Core drilling: Employing a ring fitted with hardened still

teeth, the ring is rotated while a stream of water washes

cuttings from the working face. The core rises within the

ring as drilling advances and must be periodically broken

off and withdrawn from the well. This technique is used

only in consolidated materials.

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II. Protection of groundwater from contamination:

The techniques of protecting groundwater from contamination

are based on a good understanding of the geology,

topography, drainage basin, vegetation and human habitation

of the locality.

Since the most common methods of tapping groundwater are

by wells (particularly dug wells) and springs, we will limit

ourselves to the protection methods for these two sources. To

begin with, the rate of contamination of groundwater by

pathogenic organisms or by dangerous chemical pollutants

depends upon the following factors:

A. The nature of the aquifer: in particular the permeability of

the ground formation in relation to contaminants flowing

towards the water.

B. The hydraulic gradient: this is the slope where water finds

the easiest way to flow.

C. The depth to the water table: If the water table is high

and near ground level, there will be less chance for the

pathogenic organisms to be filtered out before the

contaminated water reaches the water table. This holds true

when the contaminants infiltrate through the soil formation.

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D. Distance from the source of contaminants: It is obvious

that the further away the water source is from the sources of

contaminants, the less is the chance for contamination. The

most important source of contaminants for groundwater is

human excreta, reaching the water source in the form of

sewage, septic tank effluents, or leaching out from pit privies,

etc. The micro-organisms excreted with the human wastes are

not able to move by their own, but are carried either vertically

or horizontally by seeping water, rain or urine. The distance

they travel (accompanied by leaching water) varies with the

porosity of the soil. Under normal conditions, the vertical

downward travel in reasonably porous soil will not exceed

60cm and the horizontal or lateral travel is about 30cm. But in

limestone formations, contaminants may travel unlimited

distances in underground channels and caves.

E. Ways in which well water may be contaminated:

􀂃 Contaminants may infiltrate into the well from nearby

privies, cesspools, septic tanks etc.

􀂃 Polluted surface water (flood) may enter the well at or

near the top or mouth of the well.

􀂃 Pollutants such as dirt carrying viable micro-organisms,

insects, and small animals may fall into the well if it has

no cover.

􀂃 Use of an unsanitary bucket and ropes may contaminate

the well water.

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F. Prevention of contamination of a well:

1. The well should be situated on a higher level than the

source of contaminants– privies, cesspits, etc. In

other words, the natural flow of the groundwater (the

hydraulic gradient) should be from the well towards

the source of contaminants; never vice versa.

2. In a normal soil formation, the minimum distance

between the well and the source of contaminants

should not be less than 15 meters (observe Fig 5.6).

This doesn’t work with limestone formations.

Fig. 5.6 Proper location of a well

Source: Health and Environment Sustainable Development Five Years After

the Earth Summit, WHO, 1994.

Animal pens

Privy should be downstream

and at lower elevation

than water supply

River

Well

20m

min.

20m

minimum

20m

min. 20m

min.

Village

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G. Protection of the well

1. Casing: the inside wall of the well should be made

water proof by cementing from the top of the well

down to a minimum depth of 3 meters. The deeper it

is extended, the better. The casing of the well should

also be extended for a minimum of 60cm above the

surrounding ground level.

2. Cover: A concrete cover should be fitted over the

casing to prevent dust, insects, small animals, etc.

from falling in to the well and also to prevent leakage

of flushed water.

3. Sanitary water drawing device: Ideally, a pump

should be installed, but if a pump is not available a

sanitary bucket and rope system should be used (See

Fig. 5.7)

4. Fencing: The immediate area of the well should

preferably be fenced to keep animals away.

5. Diversion ditch: The area surrounding the well

should be graded off in order to prevent the flow of

storm water into the well.

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Fig. 5.7. A sanitary rope – and – bucket well

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

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H. Prevention of contamination of a spring

1. Siting of the spring: Before deciding to develop a spring

as a source of water supply, a thorough sanitary survey

should be carried out, and should include such things as the

nature of the water-bearing stratum, topography, vegetation,

potential sources of contamination, and the adequacy of the

yield, particularly in dry seasons. If the results of the sanitary

survey are satisfactory, the eye of the spring, that is where it

issues or originates, should be located by digging out the area

around the spring down to the impervious layer.

2. Protection of the spring:

A. After the eye, or eyes, of the spring is located and the

adequacy of the source is determined, a concrete waterproof

protection box should be constructed over the

spring to prevent all actual and potential sources of

contamination.

B. It is advisable always to construct a collection box in order

to ensure adequate protected storage of the water supply.

C. The installation of a faucet on the intake pipe should be

discouraged, as this may cause the spring to divert its

direction.

D. It is preferable to construct a retention wall in the front

part of the protection box as this holds the water to the

delivery pipe.

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E. Drainpipe or scourage pipe should be installed in the

collection box, to facilitate washing or cleaning the

container as needed.

F. The intake and overflow pipes should be screened so that

blockage of the flow by small animals such as frogs, or by

large pieces of gravel, will be minimized.

G. A diversion ditch with a radius of 10 to 15 meters should

be made around the protection box, in order to carry away

surface water during heavy rains, to prevent its infiltration.

H. If possible, the area surrounding the spring should be

fenced around. For details of spring protection, see fig 5.8

below.

Fig. 5.8 A protected spring with a collection box.

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

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5.2.2 Surface Water

Surface water is developed where the population size is large.

In urban areas and industrial towns, the main cause of

contaminants of surface water is dumping of untreated

sewage and industrial wastes into streams. In rural towns and

villages, the main contaminants are those resulting from

human activities such as improper disposal of excreta,

washing, farming and contamination from domestic and wild

animals. In any case, surface water shall never be used as a

source of water supply without treatment.

1. Surface water intake

An intake structure is required to withdraw water from a river,

lakes, or reservoir. Typical intakes are towers, submerged

ports and shoreline structures (see fig 5.9 for a typical

example). Their primary functions are:

• To supply the highest quality water

• Protect piping and pumps from damage or clogging as a

result of wave action, flooding and floating and

submerged debris.

Towers are common for lakes and reservoirs with fluctuating

water levels or variation of water quality with depth. Ports at

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several depths permit selection of the desirable water quality

and season of the year.

A submerged intake consists of a concrete block supporting

and protecting the end of a withdrawal pipe. Because of the

low cost of such under water units, they are widely used for

small rivers and lake intakes. Their disadvantage is when

repair is needed.

The intake consists of an opening and a conduit, which

conveys the flow to a pump from which the water may be

pumped out to the treatment plant. The opening should be

screened in order to prevent the entrance of debris.

In the designing and locating intake the following must be

considered:

1. The source of supply (lake, river, etc).

2. The character of the surroundings (i.e. the depth of water

and the effect of current floods upon the structure). For a

river which has great depth, it is preferable to provide

inlets at different depths.

3. The location with respect to the source of pollution.

4. The prevalence of floating matter such as logs, debris etc.

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Fig. 5.9 River intake structure

Self-purification of stream

A polluted stream will never purify itself to the extent of being

fit for human consumption without treatment.

However, it has been proven through various studies that

definite improvements take place in the bacteriological,

chemical and physical properties of the stream during its

course of flow.

Self-purification occurs by the following methods:

Sedimentation: Sedimentation is the process of settling or

deposition of heavy suspended material in the water.

Immediately after heavy rain, streams become highly turbid,

but after several hours the stream become clear. This is

Gate Control

Water Surface

Open port

Entry port

Outlet

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because some of the particles that are carried by the streams

gradually settle down during the course of flow. The rate of

sedimentation will depend upon the size and specific gravity

of the suspended particles, and upon the rate of flow of the

stream. The more gently the stream flows, the more the

chance for sedimentation. Sedimentation will speed up the

reduction and removal of intestinal parasites (pathogens)

through the process of letting them sink to the bottom of the

stream bed.

Dilution: The amount and nature of the dilutents (that is the

pollutants, sewage or industrial waste) entering a stream are

important determinants of the self-purification of the stream.

The strength of dilutents, whether it is sewage or organic

industrial waste, is usually measured in terms of the

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the particular organic

waste in question. Another way to look at dilution as an

important determinant is from the point of view of the number

of infective doses of intestinal pathogens which may be

available when a small amount of infected water enters into a

large volume of water. The chance of consuming a viable

number of pathogens at any one time may be less after

dilution.

Oxidation of the impurities by Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in

the water: Water exposed to the atmosphere absorbs free

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oxygen from the air until saturation point is reached. This

absorbed oxygen in the water is called Dissolved Oxygen.

The solubility and concentration of oxygen in water varies

mainly with the temperature of the water and the pressure of

the oxygen in the atmosphere.

Unpolluted natural stream water normally has a DO

concentration of 8 – 12 PPM (mg/l) depending chiefly on the

temperature. The DO concentration level is maintained by

several complicated and interrelated phenomena such as

diffusion, aeration, re-aeration, DO consumption by bacterial

oxydation, and effects of photosynthesis. The level of

concentration of DO is one of the most important means of

measuring the purity of stream. When large concentrations of

oxidisable waste such as sewage, organic industrial waste,

etc., are introduced into a stream, the aerobic bacteria in

water immediately starts to break down those wastes by

causing them to combine with oxygen. In the process, waste

matters will be eliminated to the extent possible. However, if

the amount of oxygen cannot cope in oxidizing the waste,

pathogens and other life forms may be present. Generally,

however, the stream will replenish its lost DO through the

process of diffusion and reaeration, etc. provided the BOD of

the waste is within the limit that the stream can cope with. We

can see, therefore, that DO along with the volume of the

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oxidisable wastes is an important determinant of the

purification of stream.

Presence of plankton and other aquatic organisms:

Plankton are plants of minute size, mostly microscopic, that

are found floating in natural waters.

Most plankton move about freely, but some are attached to

surfaces in water. Some plankton (phytoplankton) carry out

photosynthesis in water, as a result of which more oxygen is

added to maintain the optimum level of DO concentration.

Plankton preys on bacteria, thus reducing the number of

bacteria in water. The presence of plankton in these ways

helps the purification of a stream.

Temperature and sunlight: As a general rule, almost all

biochemical reactions are affected by temperature, and the

biochemistry of streams is not an exception. As we have

noted above, temperature affects the rate of solubility of

dissolved oxygen. Temperature and sunlight determine the

rate of growth and multiplication of aquatic life, particularly

that of plankton, algae, etc., and hence influence the process

of photosynthesis and reaeration. Furthermore, sunlight,

especially the ultraviolet rays, have a bactericidal effect, and

can decrease the number of micro-organisms depending on

the main body of the stream. The effect of both temperature

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and sunlight on the process of purifying a stream is therefore

obvious.

Protection of stream from gross pollution

In small villages and rural communities where streams are

the only water source and where proper treatment is virtually

impossible, the quality of stream water can be improved by

avoiding or drastically reducing the dumping of human and

animal wastes, factory wastes, etc., into the streams.

A stream can be zoned according to its intended uses; that is,

the uppermost section, presumably the cleaner portion,

should be fenced and set aside for drinking purposes, and the

sections immediately below this should be kept for washing

and for domestic animals respectively. However, zoning of

streams should not be considered as a treatment, but merely

as a temporary method of reducing gross pollution of streams.

5.2.3 Rainwater

Contamination of rainwater

From the sanitary point of view, rainwater may be the purest

of all sources of water in nature, but it is liable to

contamination under the following conditions:

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• It is likely to be contaminated as it falls through the

atmosphere. It may dissolve various gases in the lower

portion of the atmosphere, and may pick up dust particles,

soot, plant pollen, bacteria, etc., if these substances are

present in the air.

• As soon as rainwater touches the collecting surface, its

purity will depend on the cleanliness of the collecting

surface.

• Rainwater may be contaminated during storage and

distribution.

The protection of rainwater from contamination basically aims

at eliminating the aforementioned three ways in which it is

likely to be contaminated.

Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater as source of water supply can be harvested from:

1. Roof catchments: Reasonably pure rainwater can be

collected from house roofs made of tiles, slates,

(corrugated) galvanized iron or aluminum cement

sheeting. Thatched or lead roofs are not suitable because

of health hazards and thatched roofs have poor watertight

character, with high infiltration or permeability.

Water Supply I

The roof guttering should slope evenly towards the drain

pipe. To safeguard the quality of the collected rainwater,

the roof and guttering should be cleaned regularly.

2. Ground catchments: The amount of rainwater that can

be collected in the ground catchments will be dependent

on whether the catchment is flat or sloping and the water

tightness of the top layer. A considerable reduction of

such water losses can be obtained by laying tiles,

concrete, asphalt or plastic sheeting to form a smooth

impervious surface on the ground.

3. Hand-dug ponds: It is possible to dig and develop a

pond in a convenient place from the runoff. This could

help serve small villages, households, livestock and

vegetable growing. Points to be considered while

choosing reliable supply are: location, soil surface,

amount of rainfall, climate and capacity of the pond.

4. Other catchment areas: In arid areas where there is a

dry sandy riverbed and the rain is once or twice a year, a

type of collection known as a sub-surface dam could be

used to store water.

There are three types:

a. The easiest and cheapest one is to construct a clay or

other non-porous barrier across the river bed. (This

rests on the weakest point).

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b. The second is a granite, concreted dam or weir, which

is situated across the watercourse. This also reaches

the non-porous bedrock. If projects above the

riverbed to catch more water, thereby increasing the

volume of the reservoir.

c. The third is an arch weir built of blocks or concrete as

a thin walled arch across the riverbed.

Advantage of a sub-surface dam

a. The reservoir is silted up by coarse sand. Silting will

increase filtration (bacteria may be filtered).

b. Water is stored between solids, so evaporation is

eliminated to almost zero.

c. Mosquito, guinea worm and other parasites that

breed, grow, or bite near or in water will be avoided.

Therefore, there will not be an increase in malaria

incidence or other infection.

d. Because people, livestock and wild animals cannot

see the water it is easier to prevent contamination.

e. It is always possible to maintain clean, and reliable

water source (because it has a sort of filtration).

f. Water drainage could be accomplished using gravity

or from wells located either upstream or downstream

of the dam.

g. This sub-surface dam could be used in our case also

to store water in areas where rainwater is scarce.

Water Supply I

Sanitary method of collecting rainwater

In the rural parts of the country, corrugated iron sheets are

replacing thatched roofs in almost all regions. These surfaces

are likely to be contaminated by insects, bacteria, etc.

Therefore, when rain falls, the first 10 to 15 minutes of the

rainwater should be allowed to flow into the waste drain tank.

This allows the rainwater to wash off dirt which might be on

the collecting surface. After the waste drain tank is full, the

rest of the rainwater (clean water) flows in the collection tank.

The wastewater in the drain tank should be emptied out

before the next rainfall. In addition, the pipe leading to the

collection tank should have a sanitary cover and must be

sealed at the junction of the pipe and the tank in order to

avoid contamination.

If one can afford, the above system can be replaced by an

automatic device (separator) that will reject automatically the

first few minutes of rainfall and will collect clean water

thereafter. An alternative method to this method could also be

using a sand filter. The rainwater flowing through the

drainpipe should be made to pass through a sand filter before

it enters the storage tank. The sand filter will strain out

suspended solid substances, including bacteria that may be in

the rainwater. Fig. 5.10 is a typical system of roof catchments.

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Protection of storage: The storage/collection tank can be

above or below ground. Whichever type of storage is

selected, adequate enclosure should be provided to prevent

any contamination from humans, animals, leaves, dust or

other pollutants entering the storage container. A tight cover

should ensure dark storage conditions as to prevent algae

growth and the breeding of mosquito larvae. When the

storage is empty, it should be washed before being used for

the next collection. The water should preferably be drawn

through a faucet. Metal storage tank, reinforced concrete tank

and Ferro-cement tank are some of the different types of

tanks used for storage.

Water Supply I

Fig. 5.10 A simple sanitary installation for collecting rainwater

Source: Gebre Amanuel Teka, Water Supply in Ethiopia, 1973.

How to estimate the quantity of rainwater available for

domestic use

The quantity of rainwater that can be collected depends upon:

1. The amount of average annual rainfall of the locality

2. The horizontal surface area that is available for collection

(i.e., the area of the roof catchment basin, etc.)

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The average annual rainfall of an area is more or less

constant, while the collection surface can be varied,

depending on the amount of rainwater needed.

A formula to estimate the quantity of rainfall that could be

available is:

Rule; Q = A x R

Where Q = number of liters per year actually falling on the

collecting surface,

A = horizontal surface area in square meters,

adjusted to allow for evaporation etc.

R = average rainfall in cm per year.

N.B/ “Q” varies with the type of collecting surface. If the

collecting surface is made of corrugated iron sheeting then Q

should be adjusted to 80% since only losses due to

evaporation are considered. If, however, the collecting surface

is a thatched roof, Q is about 50% because the thatch

absorbs rainwater.

Example 1. The average annual rainfall of an area is 50cm

(=50/100 meters). To calculate the quantity of rainwater that

can be collected over a corrugated iron roof, which has an

area of 60 sq.m., you do the following:

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Solution. Rule : Q = A x R

= 80

100 x A x R

= 80

100 x 60 x 50/100

Quantity of rainwater available annually is equal to 24 cu.m.

or 24,000 litres.

Example 2. A rural family consisting of 8 persons is to be

supplied with 20 liters (=20/1000 cu.m) of water each per day.

The source is direct rainfall, to be collected from a corrugated

iron roof. The average annual rainfall of the area is 60cm. (=

60/100m). Calculate the area of collecting surface required.

Solution. Rule Q= A x R

100 x A x R

= 80 60

100 x A x 100

But Q = 8 x 20 x 365 cu.m.

1000

So A= 8 x 20 x 365 x 100 x 100 sq.m.

1000 80 60

Collecting surface area required = 122 sq.m.

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5.3 Water Supply and Community

Involvement

One of the factors which contributes to the problems related to

water supply in Ethiopia is the lack of community involvement

as observed in the earlier water systems built. The water

supply project in most cases will not be sustainable if done

without the involvement and will of the community. Therefore,

taking the conditions of the locality in to account, the

community should participate from the planning to

implementation phases particularly in small-scale water

development projects.

Active involvement is highly needed during the construction

activity. The community in this phase may involve:

􀂃 In collecting local construction materials (i.e., sand,

gravel, stone, etc. if available).

􀂃 In the construction activities (i.e., in excavation work,

mixing of mortar, fencing etc.)

In general, active involvement of the community is very

essential in water source development activities, in order to

have sustainable projects and feeling of ownership.

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Review Questions

1. Write the factors which influence the total consumption of

water.

2. The total quantity of water can be estimated by

ascertaining different purposes for which the supply is

necessary. What are these?

3. Describe the method for construction of hand dug wells,

driven wells, and an infiltration gallery.

4. Write the ways in which well water may be contaminated.

5. How can a stream be protected from gross pollution in a

sanitary manner?

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Glossary

Where a term is adequately defined in the text, the term is not

necessarily included in this glossary.

Algae: a simple form of plant life.

Basalt: a rock made of solidified lava, caused by volcanic

action.

Casing: the substance which encloses something (e.g., the

wall of a well.)

Cercaria: a larval stage of a parasite, which can penetrate a

suitable host.

Cesspool: a tank used for collecting sewage and other liquid

wastes, which are drained into the surrounding soil.

Cistern: a tank or reservoir for storing liquid.

Clogging: prevention of movement because of dirt or other

substances.

Contamination: the presence of an agent of infection on a

body, article or substance.

Desalination: the removal or reduction of salt.

Environment: surrounding conditions influencing life.

Evapotranspiration: the giving off of vapor from plant

surfaces

Evaporate: to turn into steam or vapor.

Fluoride: a compound of fluorine.

Gutter: a shallow channel or trough

Helminth: a parasitic intestinal worm

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Hygiene: the science concerned with establishing and

maintaining health.

Intermediate host: a host used by a parasite during its life

cycle.

Jetting bit: the cutting edge of a tool designed to send out a

jet of water.

Leach: to pass through or to cause to pass through a

substance with water or another liquid.

Magma: rock material made liquid by heat under the earth's

surface.

Micro-organisms: a very small or microscopic cell

Mineral: a substance occurring naturally in the earth.

Pathogen: disease causing organism.

Perforate: to make a hole through, to bore through

Pesticide: substance that can kill plants and animals that are

considered harmful to man.

Pond: a fairly small body of water formed either by nature or

man.

Precipitation: mist, rain, hail, etc. When it falls on the earth

the settling of a substance at the bottom of its

container.

Privy: literally “private”, a building used for urination and/or

defecation.

Pump: a machine designed to raise a liquid by suction and/or

pressure.

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Reservoir: any living organism or inanimate object in which

an agent of infection can survive and pass onto a

non-resistant host; storage tank or other means of

keeping a quantity of water.

Runoff: rainwater which flows over a land surface.

Sanitation: creation of conditions favorable to health.

Schist: a crystalline type of metamorphic rock.

Shale: rock made of layers of solidified clay or silt.

Silt: small loose rock particles which easily form sediment.

Siphons: a method of continuously transferring a liquid to a

lower point by air pressure forcing it up the shorter

end of a bent tube which discharges at the lower

level.

Slate: a fine-grained type of metamorphic rock.

Stratum (singular) strata (plural): a layer or sheet of a type of

rock

Topography: the physical features natural or man made of an

area.

Toxic: poisonous

Vector: a carrier of disease.

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References

1. Admassu M., Water Supply for Sanitarians,

Environmental Health Department, Gondar College of

Medical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Sep., 1996.

2. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development., vol 16,

Number 1, Addis Ababa, April 2002.

3. Health and Environment in Sustainable Development Five

Years after the Earth Summit, WHO, 1997.

4. Health and Health Related Indicators, Planning and

Programming Department, MOH, 1993.

5. Hodges L., Environmental Pollution, second edition, New

York, 1996.

6. M. Ehlers and W. Steel. Municipal and Rural Sanitation.

Tafa Megraw - Hill Publishing Company L.T.D. New Delhi,

1958.

7. Public Health Technician, Medicines Sans Frontiers,

1994.

8. Purdom P.W., et.al, Environmental Science., Charles E.

Merill Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio, 1980.

9. Salvato J.A., Environmental Sanitation, John Wiley and

Sons, Inc., New York, London, 1958.

10. Teka G.E., Water Supply in Ethiopia: An Introduction to

Environmental Health Practice, Addis Ababa, Addis

Ababa University Press, 1973.

11. Wright F.B., Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, third

edition, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company,

Huntington, New York, 1977.

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